FREEDOM OF SPEECH / FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION


FREEDOM OF SPEECH / FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION

Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak without censorship and/or limitation. The synonymous term freedom of expression is sometimes used to indicate not only freedom of verbal speech but any act of seeking, receiving and imparting information or ideas, regardless of the medium used [United Nations, 1966, 1976]. The right to freedom of speech is recognized as a human right under Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and recognized in international human rights law in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). The ICCPR recognizes the right to freedom of speech as "the right to hold opinions without interference. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression". Furthermore freedom of speech is recognized in European, inter-American and African regional human rights law [United Nations, 1966, 1967]. Freedom of speech, or the freedom of expression, is recognized in international and regional human rights law. The right is enshrined in Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, Article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights and Article 9 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights [Andrew Puddephatt & Hodder Arnold, 2005; Kumar, Ambika, 2006].

In Islamic ethics freedom of speech was first declared in the Rashidun period by the caliph Umar in the 7th century. In the Abbasid Caliphate period, freedom of speech was also declared by al-Hashimi (a cousin of Caliph al-Ma'mun) in a letter to one of the religious opponents he was attempting to convert through reason.

According to George Makdisi and Hugh Goddard, "the idea of academic freedom" in universities was "modelled on Islamic custom" as practiced in the medieval Madrasah system from the 9th century. Islamic influence was "certainly discernible in the foundation of the first deliberately-planned university" in Europe [Boisard, Marcel A., 1980].

* Selected REFERENCES / Sources:

Amnesty International: Annual Reports: URLhttp://www.amnesty.org/ailib/aireport/index.html Andrew Puddephatt & Hodder Arnold. (2005). Freedom of Expression: The Essentials of Human Rights. United Publishers. Boisard, Marcel A. (July 1980), "On the Probable Influence of Islam on Western Public and International Law", International Journal of Middle East Studies 11 (4): 429–50. Goddard, Hugh. (2000). A History of Christian-Muslim Relations. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Kumar, Ambika. (2006). ‘Using Courts to Enforce the Free Speech Provisions of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.’ Published by Chicago Journal of International Law. Summer 2006. URLhttp://www.allbusiness.com/corporate-governance/4082846-1.html United Nations: ‘International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.’ Adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16th December 1966: Entry into force 23 March 1976, in accordance with Article 49. URLhttp://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/ccpr.htm (United Nations) Wikipedia. (2010). ‘Freedom of Speech.’ Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. URLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_expression

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11 July 2009

The Bush Administration's Activities

URLhttp://au.news.yahoo.com/a/-/mp/5718313/bush-allowed-unprecedented-spying/ (11th July 2009)

Bush allowed 'unprecedented' spying
AAP July 11, 2009, 7:01 am

The Bush administration authorised secret surveillance activities that have still not been made public, according to a new US government report that questions the legal basis for the unprecedented anti-terrorism program. It is unclear how much valuable intelligence was yielded by the surveillance program started after the September 11, 2001, terror attacks, according to the unclassified summary of reports by five inspectors-general. The reports mandated by Congress last year were delivered to lawmakers on Friday.

President George W Bush authorised other secret intelligence activities - which have yet to become public - even as he was launching the massive warrantless wiretapping program, the summary said. It describes the entire program as the President's Surveillance Program. The report describes the program as unprecedented and raises questions about the legal grounding used for its creation. It also says the intelligence agencies' continued retention and use of the information collected under the program should be carefully monitored.

Many senior intelligence officials believe the program filled a gap in intelligence. Others, including FBI, CIA and National Counterterrorism Centre analysts, said intelligence gathered by traditional means was often more specific and timely, according to the report. The Bush White House acknowledged in 2005 it allowed the National Security Agency to intercept international communications that passed through US cables without court orders.

The inspectors-general interviewed more than 200 government officials and private sector personnel, including former CIA and NSA director Michael Hayden, former defence secretary Donald Rumsfeld and former attorney-general Alberto Gonzales. Five former Bush administration officials refused to be interviewed, including former CIA director George Tenet and former attorney-general John Ashcroft. The others were former White House chief-of-staff Andrew Card; former top Cheney aide David Addington; and John Yoo, who served as a deputy assistant attorney-general.

The IG report said an unnamed White House official inserted a paragraph into the first threat assessment prepared by the CIA after the September 11 attacks, which was used to justify the extraordinary intelligence measures. The paragraph said the "individuals and organisations involved in global terrorism possessed the capability and intention to undertake further terrorist attacks within the United States", according to the report. It also said the president should authorise the NSA to conduct the surveillance activities.

Congress required the review of the so-called warrantless wire-tapping program last year when it revised the FISA, a 30 year-old law that created a secret court to oversee government electronic surveillance. The inspectors general of the CIA, Justice Department, Defence Department, National Security Agency and Office of the National Intelligence Director also reviewed the Bush-era surveillance program.

Comments:

What is certain is that, Bush may not even know what he is signing, just that he need to sign the ‘Intelligence Activities’ of the CIA, FBI, and others. And most of the Directors of these agencies are Jews.

Also see, Official Documents of the United States of America:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Official_documents_of_the_United_States

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