FREEDOM OF SPEECH / FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION


FREEDOM OF SPEECH / FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION

Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak without censorship and/or limitation. The synonymous term freedom of expression is sometimes used to indicate not only freedom of verbal speech but any act of seeking, receiving and imparting information or ideas, regardless of the medium used [United Nations, 1966, 1976]. The right to freedom of speech is recognized as a human right under Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and recognized in international human rights law in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). The ICCPR recognizes the right to freedom of speech as "the right to hold opinions without interference. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression". Furthermore freedom of speech is recognized in European, inter-American and African regional human rights law [United Nations, 1966, 1967]. Freedom of speech, or the freedom of expression, is recognized in international and regional human rights law. The right is enshrined in Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, Article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights and Article 9 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights [Andrew Puddephatt & Hodder Arnold, 2005; Kumar, Ambika, 2006].

In Islamic ethics freedom of speech was first declared in the Rashidun period by the caliph Umar in the 7th century. In the Abbasid Caliphate period, freedom of speech was also declared by al-Hashimi (a cousin of Caliph al-Ma'mun) in a letter to one of the religious opponents he was attempting to convert through reason.

According to George Makdisi and Hugh Goddard, "the idea of academic freedom" in universities was "modelled on Islamic custom" as practiced in the medieval Madrasah system from the 9th century. Islamic influence was "certainly discernible in the foundation of the first deliberately-planned university" in Europe [Boisard, Marcel A., 1980].

* Selected REFERENCES / Sources:

Amnesty International: Annual Reports: URLhttp://www.amnesty.org/ailib/aireport/index.html Andrew Puddephatt & Hodder Arnold. (2005). Freedom of Expression: The Essentials of Human Rights. United Publishers. Boisard, Marcel A. (July 1980), "On the Probable Influence of Islam on Western Public and International Law", International Journal of Middle East Studies 11 (4): 429–50. Goddard, Hugh. (2000). A History of Christian-Muslim Relations. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Kumar, Ambika. (2006). ‘Using Courts to Enforce the Free Speech Provisions of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.’ Published by Chicago Journal of International Law. Summer 2006. URLhttp://www.allbusiness.com/corporate-governance/4082846-1.html United Nations: ‘International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.’ Adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16th December 1966: Entry into force 23 March 1976, in accordance with Article 49. URLhttp://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/ccpr.htm (United Nations) Wikipedia. (2010). ‘Freedom of Speech.’ Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. URLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_expression

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13 February 2011

Switzerland and BANK


BERN 12 Feb. - Kerajaan Switzerland mengambil keputusan untuk membekukan aset-aset Presiden Mesir, Hosni Mubarak yang mungkin disimpan di negara ini, kata Menteri Luarnya, Micheline Calmy-Rey, semalam.

Menteri itu berkata, satu arahan telah dikeluarkan untuk mengenal pasti dan membekukan sebarang aset milik Mubarak dan ahli keluarganya sejurus selepas Presiden Mesir itu meletakkan jawatannya, semalam.

Ia merupakan undang-undang sama yang dilaksanakan pada Januari lalu ke atas Presiden Tunisia, Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali yang digulingkan dan pemimpin Ivory Coast. Laurent Gbagbo.

Bern beberapa tahun ini melaksanakan undang-undang memudahkannya untuk memulangkan sebarang aset pemimpin yang korup kepada negara asal mereka, dengan syarat dana itu digunakan untuk kebajikan rakyat.

Harta Mubarak telah lama menimbulkan spekulasi. Menurut laporan media, Mubarak dan ahli keluarganya dipercayai memiliki aset bernilai lebih AS$40 bilion (RM124 bilion). Sesetengah laporan menyatakan Mubarak memiliki aset melebihi AS$70 bilion.

Menurut Swiss National Bank, deposit rakyat Mesir dalam akaun bank di negara ini berjumlah 3.6 bilion franc (RM11.47 bilion). - dpa



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